Name: Abraham Harold Maslow
Born: April 1, 1908 Brooklyn, New York
Died: June 8, 1970 Menlo Park, California
He dropped out of City College of New York, Cornell.
At the University of Wisconsin he studied psychology.
He was known for his groundbreaking studies on personality and motivation, and his concepts like self-actualization, peak-experience, and synergy have become part of our everyday language.
His best known work is the Hierarchy of needs. It says that a profession one chooses should fulfill various aspects of one's life. His theory is been mostly used in the business world, it pertains to the behavior of the workers. it has different stages and you can't move up to the next rank unless you have completed the rank before. (1. Psychological, 2. Safety, 3. Love/belongings, 4. Esteem, 5. Self-actualisation)
At a time when most psychologists focused aspects of human nature that
were considered abnormal, Abraham Maslow shifted to focus to look at the
positive sides of mental health. His interest in human potential,
seeking peak experiences and improving mental health by seeking personal
growth had a lasting influence on psychology. While Maslow’s work fell
out of favor with many academic psychologists, his theories are enjoying
a resurgence due to the rising interesting in positive psychology.
Best Known For: Hierarchy of Needs, Founder of Humanistic Psychology
Name: Robert Boleslaw Zajonc
Born: November 23, 1923 Lonz, Poland
Died: December 3, 2008 Standford, California
At first he studied at an underground university in Warsaw, then he continued his studies at University of Paris ( was held at a working camp in Germany, escaped and got caught again in France, where he escaped again and join the French Resistance). Later on he went to University of Michigan where he received his PhD.
Mere-exposure effect is the phenomenon that repeated exposure to a stimulus brings about an attitude change in relation to the stimulus. He focused on processes involved in social behavior, with an emphasis on the relationship between affect, or emotion, and cognition.
Zajonc, along with Greg Markus, developed the Confluence Model (1977), which provided a mathematical model of the effect of birth order and family size on IQ scores.
Robert Zajonc and a group of his colleagues did a study to try and evaluate how couples who have been together for 25 years (i.e. married couples) begin to develop similar facial features. The study involved 110 participants (55 couples) whose photographs were taken in their first year of marriage.The explanation the scientists agreed on was empathy. Most married couples who have been together for 25 years or longer can identity with the other persons feelings. A lot of human emotions and feelings are expressed through the face, and when two people make similar facial expressions for 25 years it could result in similar wrinkle patterns. There isn't enough evidence to prove this theory to be completely true, but it is definitely a possibility.
Name: Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
Born: September 26, 1849 Ryazan, Russia
Died: February 27, 1936 Leningrad, Soviet Union
His early studies were focused on theology, but after reading Darwin's theory of species he abandoned his studies and started to study natural sciences at the University of Saint Petersberg.
While researching the digestive function of dogs, he noted his subjects would salivate before the delivery of food. In a series of well-known experiments, he presented a variety of stimuli before the presentation of food, eventually finding that, after repeated association, a dog would salivate to the presence of a stimulus other than food. He termed this response a
conditional reflex. Pavlov also discovered that these reflexes originate in the cerebral cortex of the brain. ( He received a Noble Prize for this study)
While Ivan Pavlov was not a psychologist, and reportedly disliked the field of psychology altogether, his work had a major influence on the field, particularly on the development of behaviorism. His discovery and research on reflexes influenced the growing behaviorist movement, and his work was often cited in John B. Watson's writings. Other researchers utilized Pavlov's work in the study of conditioning as a form of learning. His research also demonstrated techniques of studying reactions to the environment in an objective, scientific method.
Best Known For: Classical conditioning, Research on physiology and digestion., 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology.
Name: Erick Erikson ( Salomonsen, Homberger)
Born: June 15, 1902 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Died: May 12, 1994 Harwich, Cape Cod, Massachusetts
He studies arts and later on decided to go to Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute to study psychoanalysis. Later on he moved to Usa, where he tough at Harvard Medical School. He also held positions at institutions including Yale, Berkeley, and the Menninger Foundation.
He may be most famous for the phrase identity crisis, but his greatest innovation was to postulate not five stages of development, but eight. He believed that every human being goes through a certain number of stages to reach his or her full development, theorizing eight stages that a human being goes through from birth to death. His theory stated that even if a stage is not successfully completed that the person can move to the next stage, however he challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future.
Hopes: Trust vs. Mistrust (Oral-sensory, Birth-2 years)
Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?
The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being met by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. The child's view of the word and society is limited by the interactions of its parents. According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust- that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust- that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. While negative, having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Muscular-Anal, 2-4 years)
Existential Question: Is It OK to Be Me?
In this stages the child is still dependent by its parents, but now he explores the world around him. He has to be protected, so that he won't explore things that are dangerous. Slowly they learn how to take care of some basic things by themselves. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy—a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.
Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years)
Existential Question: Is it OK for Me to Do, Move, and Act?
Here they learn to perform more basic stuff by themselves. The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage.
Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (Latency, 5-12 years)
Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of People and Things?
Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence. Children start recognizing their special talents and continue to discover interests as their education improves. They may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that interest. If not allowed to discover own talents in their own time, they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy.
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 years)
Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be?
Erikson is credited with coining the term "Identity Crisis."[8] Each stage that came before and that follows has its own 'crisis', but even more so now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the skills needed for adulthood’s tasks in our technological world.
Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood, 20-24, or 20-40 years)
Existential Question: Can I Love?
The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. He believed that we are often isolated by intimacy, by the fear of rejection. Once people have established their identities they become ready for making long-term commitments to others.
Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood, 25-64, or 40-64 years)
Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count?
In this stages people make a contribution to the society by raising a family, or working for the sake of the society. On the other hand a person who is self-centered and not willing to help society move forward develops develops a feeling of stagnation.
Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood, 65-death)
Existential Question: Is it OK to Have Been Me?
As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. We look back at what have we done, if we did complete our life goals. If we did we develop feeling of integrity. If are not happy how we were leading our life we develop despair, which often leads to depression and helplessness.
He is also credited as being one of the originators of ego psychology. In his studies he discovered that the environment in which a child lived was crucial to providing growth, adjustment, a source of self-awareness and identity. He won a Pulitzer Prize for the book Ghandi's truth, which focused on more on his theory as applied to later phases in the life cycle.
Best Known For: Stages of Psychosocial Development, Identity Crisis
Name: Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky
Born: November 17, 1896 Orsha, Russian Empire
Died: June 11,1934 Mowkow, USSR
He attended Moscow State University, where he graduated with a degree in law. He studied a range of topics while attending the University, however his formal work of psychology began in 1924, when he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow. He published 6 books in 10 years. His interest were diverse, but often focused on child development and education. He also explored such topics as the psychology of art and language development.
Some of his theories are Cultural mediation and internalization, Thought and Language, Zone of proximal development...
Zone of proximal development
According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers."( Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that a child can complete.)
Cultural mediation and internalization
Vygotsky investigated child development and the important roles of cultural mediation and interpersonal communication. He observed how higher mental functions developed through these interactions also represented the shared knowledge of a culture. This process is known as internalization.
Thought and Language
Perhaps his most important work, where he focuses on the inter-relationship of language development and thought. Language starts as a tool external to the child used for social interaction. Where the child starts 'using' this tool in a kind of self-talk or "thinking out loud." Inner speech is not comparable in form to external speech. External speech is the process of turning thought into words. Inner speech is the opposite; it is the conversion of speech into inward thought. Inner speech, for example, contains predicates only. Subjects are superfluous. Words are also used much more economically. One word in inner speech may be so replete with sense to the individual that it would take many words to express it in external speech.
His work is still discovered today, and now he considered a seminal thinker in psychology. In his time he did not achieved the level of eminence as Freud, Pavlov, Skinner and Piaget. Despite this, his work has continued to grow in influence since his death, particularly in the fields of developmental and educational psychology. Was often compared to Piaget.
Best Known For: Zone of Proximal Development, Sociocultural Theory, Guided Participation
Name: Jean William Fritz Piaget
Born: August 9, 1896 Neuchatel, Switzerland
Died: September 16, 1980 Geneva, Switzerland
He received his Ph.D. in Zoology from University of Neuchâtel, also studied briefly at the University of Zürich.
Piaget identified himself as a genetic epistemologist. "What the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering the roots of the different varieties of knowledge, since its elementary forms, following to the next levels, including also the scientific knowledge," he explained in his book Genetic Epistemology. His early work with Binet's intelligence tests had led him to conclude that children think differently than adults. It was this observation that inspired his interest in understand how knowledge grows throughout childhood.
Piaget studied the intellectual development of his own three children and created a theory that described the stages that children pass through in the development of intelligence and formal thought processes.
The theory identifies four stages; (1) the sensorimotor stage, (2) the preoperational stage, (3) the concrete operational stage, and (4) the formal operation stage.
Piaget provided support for the idea that children think differently than adults and his research identified several important milestones in the mental development of children. His work also generated interest in cognitive and developmental psychology. Piaget's theories are widely studied today by students of both psychology and education.
Best Known For: Theory of cognitive development, Genetic epistemology
Name: Anna Freud
Born: December 3, 1895 Vienna, Austtria
Died: October 9, 1982 London, England
Even though she attended a private school, but she stated that she learn little at school. The majority of her education was from the teachings of her father's friends and associates. Anna Freud never earned a higher degree, her work in
psychoanalysis and child psychology contributed to her eminence in the
field of psychology.
She had a profound influence on Erik Erikson who later went on to expand the field of psychoanalysis and ego psychology. Anna Freud created the field of child psychoanalysis and her work
contributed greatly to our understanding of child psychology. She also
developed different techniques to treat children.
Best Known For:Founder of child psychoanalysis, Defence mechanism, Contributions to ego psychology
Name: Avram Noam Chomsky
Born: December 7, 1928 Philadelphia, Pennsynvania
Died: still alive
Chomsky began studying philosophy and linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania. He conducted part of his doctoral research during four years at Harward University.
He has a lot of interest and researches most of them, but some of his biggest works are in linguistics, generative grammar and the chomsky hierarchy.
Linguistics : It is a popular misconception that Chomsky proved that language is
entirely innate, and that he discovered a "universal grammar" (UG). In
fact, Chomsky simply observed that while a human baby and a kitten are
both capable of inductive reasoning,
if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human
child will always acquire the ability to understand and produce
language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability.
Generative grammar: The Chomskyan approach towards syntax, often termed generative grammar,
studies grammar as a body of knowledge possessed by language users.
Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that much of this knowledge is
innate, implying that children need only learn certain parochial
features of their native languages.
The innate body of linguistic knowledge is often termed universal grammar.
From Chomsky's perspective, the strongest evidence for the existence of
Universal Grammar is simply the fact that children successfully acquire
their native languages in so little time
Chomsky hierarchy: while a regular language is powerful enough to model English morphology, it is not powerful enough to model English syntax. In addition to being relevant in linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy has also become important in computer science. Indeed, there is an equivalence between the Chomsky language hierarchy
and the different kinds of automata. Thus theorems about languages are
often dealt with as either languages (grammars) or automata.
Name: Granville Stanley Hall
Born:
February 1, 1844 Ashfield, Massachusetts
Died:
April 24, 1924 Worcester, Massachusetts
He initially enrolled at Williston Academy in 1862, but later
transferred to Williams College. After his graduation in 1867, he
attended Union Theological Seminary. He went to acquire doctorate in psychology from Harvard University under psychologist William James and Henry P. Bowditch. G. Stanley Hall holds the distinction of being the first American to be granted a Ph.D. in Psychology.
His primary interests were in evolutionary psychology and child development.
Perhaps his greatest contribution was to the development and growth of
early psychology. By the year 1898, Hall had supervised 30 out of the 54
Ph.D. degrees that had been awarded in the United States.
Best Known For:Became the first President of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1892, Founded the first American psychology laboratory at John Hopkins University, First American to earn a Ph.D. in Psychology.
Name: Harry Frederick Harlow
Born: October 31, 1905 Fairfield, Iowa, U.S.
Died: December 6, 1981 Tucson, Arizona, U.S.
After a year at Reed College in Portland, Oregon, Harlow obtained admission to Stanford University
on a special aptitude test. After a semester as an English major with
nearly disastrous grades, he declared himself as a psychology major.
Best known for his maternal-separation and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys,
which demonstrated the importance of care-giving and companionship in
social and cognitive development. He conducted most of his research at
the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow worked for a time with him.
In a well-known series of experiments conducted between 1957 and 1963 in his laboratory at the University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Harlow removed baby rhesus monkeys from their mothers and arranged for
them to be "raised" by two kinds of surrogate monkey mother machines,
both equipped to dispense milk. One device was made out of bare mesh
wire. The other was fashioned from wire and covered with soft terrycloth.
He later modified the experiment by separating the infants into two
groups, giving them no choice between the two types of mothers.
